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Biology

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Introduction to the Degree in Biology. Source: Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 4.0).

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Definition, history, and classification of biology

Biology: the science that studies life and organic processes
Objective: to establish general laws of organic life
Scale of study: from biophysical subcomponents to complex systems
Molecular biology: study of biomolecules
Cell biology: study of the cell (basic unit)
Ecology: study of habitats and relationships with the environment
Microbiology: emerged in the 17th century
Unification of biology: occurred in the 19th century
Key milestones: genetics, evolution (natural selection), and germ theory
Biophysics and biochemistry: application of physics and chemistry at the cellular/molecular level
Etymology: βίος (life) and -λογία (science)
Treviranus and Lamarck: introduced the term in 1802
Burdach: credited with the term in 1800
Professional classification: laboratory biologists and field biologists

History and foundations of biology and living organisms

Consolidation of biology as a coherent field: 19th Century
Historical precursors: Egyptian medicine, Aristotle, Galen, and Islamic medicine (Avicenna, al-Jahiz, etc.)
The push for empiricism: Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey (observation and experimentation)
Classification and fossil record: Carl von Linné and Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon
Basis of cell theory: Discovery of microorganisms through microscopy
Physicochemical connection of life: Lavoisier
Foundations of biogeography, ecology, and ethology: Alexander von Humboldt
Theory of evolution by natural selection: Charles Darwin
Germ theory of disease: Validated at the end of the 19th century
Modern genetics: Rediscovery of Gregor Mendel and the work of Thomas Hunt Morgan
Modern evolutionary synthesis: 1930s (population genetics + natural selection)
DNA structure: Proposed by Watson and Crick (based on Rosalind Franklin)
Division of biology: Organismal biology vs. Cellular and molecular biology
Contemporary fields: Genomics and proteomics
Properties of life: Organized structure, metabolism, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, irritability, and evolution
Oldest fossil record: 3.8 billion years (UCLA, 1996)

Levels of biological organization and chemical components of life

Atom: minimum unit of matter
Molecule: ordered grouping of atoms
Macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Organelle: subcellular structure with specific functions
Cell: minimum structural and functional unit of living beings
Tissue: a set of similar cells with a common function
Organ: a group of tissues that form a functional unit
System: a group of organs with a particular function
Organism: the result of the organization of the previous levels
Species: organisms that are similar to each other
Population: individuals of a species in a specific area
Community: populations that interact within an area
Ecosystem: community + environment
Biosphere: the set of ecosystems on Earth
Primary bioelements (CHON): up to 95% of the mass of biomolecules
Secondary bioelements (S, P, Mg, Ca, Na, K, Cl): up to 4.5% of the mass
Biomolecules: organic substances composed of C, H, O, N, P, and S
Trace elements: minerals in low doses (K, Na, Ca, P, Mg, Zn, Fe)
Biological principles: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, homeostasis, and interactions
Evolution: the descent of life from a common ancestor through natural selection and genetic drift
Universality: common biochemistry, cells, DNA, and a universal genetic code
Chromosomes: organized DNA with proteins in rod-like structures
Genes: segments of DNA on chromosomes that encode proteins or peptides
Recon: the minimum segment of DNA with recombination capacity
Muton: the minimum segment of DNA with mutation capacity

Foundations of Biology: Phylogeny, Classification, and Basic Concepts

Phylogeny: study of evolutionary history and genealogical relationships.
Phylogenetic tools: DNA/RNA/protein sequences and paleontological remains.
Taxonomy: classification into taxa; Systematics: study of their relationships.
Current system: three domains (Archaea, Bacteria, Eukaryota).
Excluded from kingdoms: viruses, viroids, and prions (intracellular parasites).
Nucleocytoviricota: proposed fourth domain (debated due to horizontal gene transfer).
Universal common ancestor: estimated 4.25 billion years ago.
Universal Common Descent (UCD) Theory: proven by the universality of the genetic code.
Homeostasis: regulation of internal conditions through dynamic equilibrium.
Levels of homeostasis: cellular (pH), organismal (temperature), and ecosystem (CO2).
Ecology: the study of interactions between species in an ecosystem.

Foundations, disciplines, and levels of biological organization

Study groups: basic structures, tissues/organs, evolution, and interactions.
Interdisciplinarity: molecular biology provides techniques for evolution, and cell biology contributes to physiology.
Speleology: the study of organisms in underground cavities.
Classification: from 2 kingdoms (Linnaeus) to more than 20 kingdoms in cladistic systems.
Molecular biology: protein synthesis and DNA/RNA regulation.
Cell biology: the study of unicellular cells and specialized cells in multicellular organisms.
Genetics: the study of genes, inheritance, and variation; DNA in chromosomes.
Genes: encode proteins that influence the phenotype.
Developmental biology: the study of growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis.
Model organisms: C. elegans, D. melanogaster, D. rerio, M. musculus, and A. thaliana.
Physiology: mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes as a functional unit.
Animal and plant physiology: share universal principles and techniques.
Anatomy: the study of organic systems (nervous, immunological, endocrine, respiratory, circulatory).
Comparative anatomy: studies evolutionary changes through homologies and fossils.
Ecophysiology: physiological processes in communities, ecosystems, and biogeochemical cycles.

Evolutionary biology and taxonomy

Evolutionary biology: studies the origin, descent, and changes of species
Included fields: teriology, ornithology, herpetology, paleontology, population genetics
Evolutionary developmental biology: reintroduced in the 1990s
Related disciplines: phylogeny, systematics, and taxonomy
Botany: study of growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and evolution of plants
Zoology: study of animals, including physiology, anatomy, and embryology
Molecular biology/molecular genetics: studies common genetics and developmental mechanisms
Behavioral ecology: covers animal ecology
Dominant system: Linnaean taxonomy (ranks and binomial nomenclature)
ICN: regulates botanical nomenclature
ICZN: regulates zoological nomenclature
ICNP: regulates prokaryotic nomenclature
BioCode: 1997 draft to standardize nomenclature (not formally adopted)
ICTV: virus code, excluded from the BioCode

Foundations of Ecology and Ethology

Ecology: study of distribution, abundance, and interactions of organisms
Habitat: sum of abiotic factors (climate, geology) and biotic factors
Interactions: can be intraspecific or interspecific
Classification of interactions: beneficial, harmful, or neutral
Energy flow: propagates through the trophic web losing quality as heat
Energy sources: sun (primary), plants (photosynthesis), and animals (heterotrophy)
Trophic pyramids: reflect the lower efficiency of heterotrophic versus photosynthetic processes
Carrying capacity: population limit due to energy loss in the chain
Levels of study: individual, population, ecosystem, and biosphere
Biosphere: supraorganism hypothesis with homeostasis
Information ecology: application in communication theory
Market niches: application in marketing
Ethology: the study of animal behavior under natural selection
Sociobiology: a proposed core discipline for the social sciences
Neuroethology: a branch with applications in robotics and neuropsychiatry
Game theory: applied to evolutionary dynamics in ethology

Resources and information platforms on Biology

Wiktionary: definitions and other information about biology
RAE Dictionary: definition of biology
Wikiversity: learning projects about biology
BioScripts: computing resources for biologists

Flashcard preview (6 of 40)

01
Etymology: What does the Greek prefix βίος [bíos] mean in 'biology'?
life
02
What is the basic constitutive unit of all life according to cell biology?
the cell
03
In which century did microbiology emerge with the invention of the microscope?
17th century
04
In which century was biology unified by discovering commonalities in all living beings?
19th century
05
What is the term for a biologist who traditionally works in the field?
field biologist
06
In which century did the concept of biology as a single coherent field flourish?
19th century

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