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Chemistry

University, Sciences

The composition, structure, and transformation of matter at the atomic and molecular levels. Source: Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 4.0).

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Definition, history, and branches of chemistry

  • Definition: the study of the composition, structure, properties, and changes of matter.
  • Linus Pauling's definition: the study of substances, the arrangement of atoms, and reactions over time.
  • Supramolecular chemistry: the study of gases, molecules, crystals, and metals.
  • Central science: connects with physics (physical chemistry), biology (biochemistry), astronomy (astrochemistry), and geology (geochemistry).
  • Study methods: laboratory techniques and computational molecular modeling.
  • Historical origin: evolution from alchemy to modern chemistry.
  • Milestones of the chemical revolution: discovery of gases (Boyle) and laws of conservation/combustion (Lavoisier).
  • Systematization: creation of the periodic table and atomic theory.
  • Inorganic chemistry: study of inorganic matter.
  • Organic chemistry: study of organic matter.
  • Biochemistry: study of substances in biological organisms.
  • Physical chemistry: structural and energetic study at macro, molecular, and atomic scales.
  • Analytical chemistry: analysis of the composition and structure of samples.
  • Etymology: derived from 'alchemy' (Arabic al-kīmīā, Greek χημία/χημεία).
  • Hypothesis 1: 'the Egyptian art' (from Chemi/Kimi/Kham).
  • Hypothesis 2: 'to fuse' (from χημεία).
  • Hypothesis 3: 'the art of extracting juices' (from khumos).

Definition, importance, and branches of chemistry

  • Definition 1661 (Boyle): Principles of mixed bodies
  • Definition 1663 (Glaser): Art of dissolving, obtaining, and joining substances
  • Definition 1745 (Stahl): Art of understanding and recomposing mixtures from their principles
  • Definition 1857 (Dumas): Laws and effects of molecular forces
  • Definition 1947 (Pauling): Structure, properties, and reactions of substances
  • Definition 1988 (Chang): The study of matter and its changes
  • Chemistry is a basic science applied to medicine, biology, engineering, and more
  • Exothermic processes: release energy to the surroundings
  • Endothermic processes: absorb energy from the surroundings
  • Analytical chemistry: divided into quantitative and qualitative
  • Inorganic chemistry: compounds without carbon-hydrogen bonds
  • Organic chemistry: the study of compounds with carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds
  • Fathers of organic chemistry: Friedrich Wöhler and Archibald Scott Couper
  • The electron is the most important particle for understanding chemical reactivity
  • Current models: atomic and molecular orbitals based on quantum mechanics

Historical evolution and foundations of chemistry

  • Robert Boyle: Father of chemistry; differentiation between alchemy and empirical science.
  • Boyle: Proposed a mechanical alternative of atoms and the rejection of the "four elements."
  • Lavoisier: Refuted the phlogiston theory, established the principle of conservation of mass, and developed chemical nomenclature.
  • 1754: Discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by Black and van Helmont.
  • Cavendish: Discovery of hydrogen.
  • Priestley and Scheele: Isolation of pure oxygen.
  • 1803: John Dalton postulates the atomic theory (indivisible atoms with distinct weights).
  • Davy: Discovery of 9 new elements (including alkali metals) using the voltaic pile.
  • 1860: Creation of the modern periodic table by Meyer and Mendeleev.
  • Ramsay and Rayleigh: Discovery of the noble gases.
  • Wohler: Synthesis of urea; beginning of modern organic chemistry.
  • 1852: Edward Frankland understands valence bonds.
  • 1870: Application of thermodynamics to chemistry by Gibbs and Arrhenius.
  • 1897: J. J. Thomson discovers the electron.
  • Curie and Becquerel: Research into radioactivity.
  • Rutherford: Discovery of the proton and the internal structure of the atom; first transmutation.
  • Bohr and Moseley: Improvement of Rutherford's atomic structure.
  • Pauling and Lewis: Electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals.
  • 2011: International Year of Chemistry (UN).

Fundamental principles and basic concepts of modern chemistry

  • Current model: quantum mechanical model
  • Chemical reaction: rearrangement of electrons in bonds
  • Chemical equation: must maintain the same number of atoms on both sides
  • Unequal atoms in an equation: indicates nuclear reaction or radioactive decay
  • Critical variables: energy and entropy
  • Matter: requires mass, shape, weight, and volume
  • Massless particle: photon
  • Nucleons: protons (+) and neutrons (uncharged)
  • Mass ratio: nucleon is 1836 times heavier than the electron
  • Radius ratio: atom is 10,000 times larger than its nucleus
  • Atomic number (Z): quantity of protons
  • Mass number: sum of protons and neutrons
  • Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different mass numbers
  • Periodic Table: organized by atomic number into groups and periods
  • Nomenclature: regulated by the IUPAC and the CAS registry number

Classification and subdisciplines of chemistry

  • Inorganic chemistry: carbon-free compounds (transition metals, acids, bases).
  • Organic chemistry: compounds based on carbon chains.
  • Biochemistry: reactions and substances in living organisms; linked to molecular biology and genetics.
  • Biological difference: DNA has an evolutionary history; synthetic organic molecules do not.
  • Physical chemistry: physical foundations, energy, and dynamics (thermodynamics, kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy).
  • Industrial chemistry: mass production, economic viability, and low environmental impact.
  • Analytical chemistry: divided into Qualitative (identification) and Quantitative (determination).
  • Astrochemistry: composition of celestial bodies and interstellar material.
  • Electrochemistry: transformation of electrical energy leftrightarrow chemical energy.
  • Photochemistry: interactions between matter and light/radiation.
  • Magnetochemistry: substances with magnetic properties.
  • Nanochemistry: related to nanotechnology.
  • Petrochemistry: products derived from petroleum or natural gas.
  • Geochemistry: transformations of terrestrial minerals.
  • Computational chemistry: use of software to calculate structures and predict phenomena.
  • Quantum chemistry: application of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.
  • Macromolecular chemistry: study of polymers and macromolecules.
  • Environmental chemistry: natural and anthropogenic chemical components.
  • Nuclear chemistry: behavior of atomic nuclei.
  • Organometallic chemistry: compounds with carbon-metal bonds.
  • Supramolecular chemistry: interactions between molecules.
  • Theoretical chemistry: use of mathematics and physics for predictions.
  • Toxicological chemistry: toxicity of substances in the ecosystem and humans.
  • Dmitri Mendeleev: predicted germanium (atomic number 32), gallium, and scandium using the periodic table.

History and foundations of atomic theory and basic chemical concepts

  • Nobel Prize: Emil Fischer (glucose), Maria Curie (radioactivity), Theodor Svedberg (ultracentrifuge)
  • Nobel Prize: Irene Curie (nuclear reactor), Otto Hahn (nuclear fission), Linus Pauling (proteins)
  • Nobel Prize: Crutzen, Molina, and Rowlands (ozone layer), Kornberg (genetic information)
  • Nobel Prize: Whittingham and Yoshino (lithium-ion batteries)
  • Philosophical origin: Atomists of ancient Greece
  • Empirical foundations: 19th Century (Lavoisier, Proust, Richter, Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Berzelius, Avogadro)
  • Atomic composition: Nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electron cloud
  • Atomic number: Determined by the number of protons
  • Electrical neutrality: Number of protons = Number of electrons
  • Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
  • Mol: Equivalent to 6.022045 · 10²³ particles (Avogadro's Number)
  • Cations: Ions with a positive charge
  • Anions: Ions with a negative charge

Atomic structure, orbitals, solutions, and acidity

  • Bond energy: energy difference between atoms and the resulting molecule
  • Stoichiometry: fixed proportions of atoms in molecules
  • Isomers: substances with the same atoms but different combinations
  • Atomic orbital: mathematical function of the position of electrons in an atom
  • Molecular orbital: mathematical function of the position of electrons in a molecule
  • Constructive interference: produces a lower energy orbital and an oval shape
  • Destructive interference: produces a higher energy orbital and a node
  • Solubility: the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved
  • Suspension: floating particles in a mixture, opaque or translucent
  • Concentration: measure of solute per unit of solvent
  • Molarity (M): solute/solution ratio
  • Molality (m): solute/solvent ratio
  • pH: a logarithmic scale where pH < 7 is acidic, pH > 7 is basic, and pH = 7 is neutral
  • H+ concentration in neutral water: 10⁻⁷ M

Chemical formulation and nomenclature

  • IUPAC: international organization with universal authority on chemical nomenclature and terminology
  • Objective: to allow the identification of compounds in a systematic and unambiguous manner
  • Chemical formulas: a tool to express chemical reactions systematically
  • Chemical equations: formal representation of reactions using formulas

Flashcard preview (6 of 40)

  1. 01

    According to Linus Pauling, what does chemistry study in addition to substances and their properties?

    The reactions that transform them into other substances in reference to time.

  2. 02

    Chemistry relates to biology through:

    Biochemistry.

  3. 03

    Which scientist postulated the law of conservation of matter and the theory of combustion by oxygen?

    Antoine Lavoisier.

  4. 04

    The chemistry that studies substances existing in biological organisms is called:

    Biochemistry.

  5. 05

    What is the Arabic origin of the word chemistry?

    al-kīmīā (الکیمیاء).

  6. 06

    According to Robert Boyle (1661), chemistry was the area that studied the principles of [____].

    mixed bodies

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