Social and Legal Sciences · Tourism

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Tourism

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Introduction to the Degree in Tourism. Source: Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 4.0).

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Concept, competitiveness, and etymology of tourism

Tourism: activities outside the usual environment for less than 1 year
Excursions: trips without overnight stays
Visitors: sum of tourists and excursionists
Product competitiveness: ability to differentiate and sell the attraction
Competitiveness factors: accessibility, infrastructure, tourism facilities, price/quality ratio, safety, image, and superstructure
Domestic tourism: travel within one's own country
International movements (2015): 1,187 million
Most visited countries (2015): France (84M), USA (77M), Spain (68M), China (56M), Italy (46M)
Semitic etymology: origin in ancient Aramaic (tur = pilgrimage)
French etymology: La Tour family (18th century) and the verb tourner
English etymology: Old English *torn (12th century), evolved to tourism* in the 19th century
First literary record of tourism: 1772 (Ralph Griffiths)

Definitions and Theoretical Evolution of Tourism

Borman Definition (1930): Travel for pleasure/commerce with temporary absence from residence
Exclusion: Travel to a place of work is not considered tourism
UNWTO Classification: Tourist (with overnight stay) vs. Excursionist (without overnight stay)
Hunziker and Krapf (1942): Non-profit movements and socio-economic reproduction
Tourismology: Independent science founded by Živadin Jovičić in 1972
UNWTO Definition (1990): Travel of less than one year for leisure, business, or other purposes
Jafar Jafari: Tourism is an interdisciplinary phenomenon and the largest peaceful movement of population
John Tribe (1997): Interaction between regions, tourists, providers, governments, and environments
Eric Cohen: Tourism is a rite of passage based on escapism and the ludic pattern
Alexandre Panosso Netto (2007): Tourism is an experience that constructs the "tourist self"
Maximiliano Korstanje: The function of tourism is to prevent social fragmentation
Bachelor's Degree in Tourism: Duration of 3 to 4 years depending on the country
Labor market: Destination planning, hotel management, innovation, and sustainable development

Bachelor's Degree in Tourism and the Historical Evolution of Tourism

Bachelor's Degree in Tourism: training in management, sustainability, accounting, and hotel management.
Tourism outings: ecotourism, adventure, sports, tour guiding, and agency management.
Origin of tourism: 19th century, consequence of the Industrial Revolution.
Classical Greece: importance of leisure, Olympic Games in Olympia, and oracles of Delphi/Dodona.
Roman Empire: baths, theaters, and holiday villas due to Pax Romana and communication routes.
Middle Ages: rise of pilgrimages (Camino de Santiago since 814, Hajj as a pillar of Islam).
Modern Age: emergence of the concept of 'hotel' and the great maritime expeditions.
Grand Tour: a 3 to 5-year journey for English aristocrats (origin of the terms 'tourism' and 'tourist').
Modern Age: resurgence of thermal baths and discovery of mud baths and cold-water beaches.

Historical evolution of tourism and hospitality (19th-20th centuries)

Origin: late 19th century and early 20th century due to the Industrial Revolution
Transport: the steam engine drastically reduced travel times by train and ship
Maritime leadership: England dominated the transoceanic market in the second half of the 19th century
Initial types of tourism: health, mountain, and cold-water beaches
1841: Thomas Cook organizes the first planned trip in history
1851: Creation of the first travel agency (Thomas Cook and Son)
1850: Foundation of American Express
1867: Invention of the voucher by American Express
César Ritz: Father of modern hospitality (introduced the bathroom and the sommelier)
1914: Approximately 150,000 American tourists in Europe before World War I
Post-World War I: Mass motorization of buses and automobiles and the boom of coastal tourism
1929-1932: Negative impact of the economic crisis on tourism
1945-1949: Total paralysis of tourism due to World War II
1950-1973: Period of the tourism boom and the beginning of sector legislation

Historical evolution and factors of modern tourism development

Tourism growth driven by the middle class and the welfare state
Key legislation: paid vacations, the 5-day work week, and the 40-hour workday
Mobility factors: assembly line car production and highway construction
Technological impact: the jet engine displaced traditional shipping
Evolution of tourists: from 25 million (1950) to 190 million (1973)
Initial problems: lack of planning and tourism colonialism
The 1970s crisis: energy crisis, inflation, and reduction in quality
The 1980s: internationalization, marketing, and new products (theme parks, wellness)
The 1990s: maturity stage, capacity control, and sustainable development policies
Supranational milestones: Maastricht Treaty (1992) and Schengen Agreement (1995)
Liberalization: low-cost flights and the Bolkestein Directive
2012 Record: more than 1,000 million international tourists
2012 Spending Leadership: China with USD 102 billion

Statistics and metrics of international and regional tourism

World arrivals 2008: 917 million (+1.76%)
World arrivals 2009: 882 million (-4.4% global; -5.6% in Europe)
Causes of 2009 decline: Economic recession and swine flu (H1N1)
Record arrivals 2012: 1035 million
World arrivals 2018: 1401 million (+5.4%)
Record revenue 2008: USD 942 billion
Revenue 2009: USD 852 billion (-5.8% in real terms)
Revenue 2010: USD 919 billion
Largest revenue recipient 2010: United States (USD 103.5 billion)
Largest expenditure generator 2010: Germany (77.7 billion USD)
Country with the highest expenditure growth: China
Leader in mass and business tourism in Latam: Mexico
Key country for employment and foreign exchange in Latam: Dominican Republic
Latam's strength: Cultural and natural resources
Latam's weakness: Infrastructure and legal framework
2010 Latam Ranking: Mexico (22.3M), Panama (5.2M), Brazil (5.1M), Dominican Rep. (4.1M), Chile (3.3M)

Typologies and concepts of the tourism sector

Tourism sector: offers products (services + usage rights)
Individual tourism: decided by the traveler without operators
Mass tourism: conventional, passive, seasonal, and less specialized
Cultural tourism: requires historical-artistic resources and intangible heritage
Cultural priorities: architecture and craftsmanship (first), language and gastronomy (second)
Cultural tourism: an instrument for socioeconomic development and poverty reduction
Rural tourism: a variant of cultural tourism focused on rural heritage and customs
Sustainability certification: a voluntary mechanism to measure qualitative and quantitative performance
Certification: instruments above legal frameworks (WTO)

Typologies of Cultural and Natural Tourism

Creative Tourism: Active participation and co-creation with residents
Creative Tourism: Also known as Orange Tourism
Headquarters of the International Creative Tourism Network: Barcelona
Urban Tourism: The most massive in the world, focused on World Heritage
Monumental Tourism: Focused on specific monuments, often isolated
Archaeological Tourism: Based on the conservation and promotion of archaeological sites
Funeral Tourism: Visits to historical cemeteries or the graves of famous figures
Ethnographic Tourism: Based on traditions, dances, gastronomy, and customs
Literary Tourism: Based on places of biographical or bibliographic interest
Gastronomic Tourism: Focused on traditional food and tasting festivals
Wine Tourism: Focused on wineries and harvest festivals
Cultural marketing variables: integrated communications, demand forecasting, and brand management
Nature Tourism: Recreational activities in protected areas without damaging the environment
Urban Nature Tourism: Contemplation in botanical gardens and zoos

Typologies of Tourism: Rural, Active, Business, and Specialized

Rural tourism: focused on rural customs, traditions, and gastronomy.
Ecotourism: direct contact with nature in reserves and national parks.
Agritourism: educational training on agro-industrial processes on farms.
Agroecotourism: accommodation with tourism standards + participation in agricultural work.
Ornithological tourism: birdwatching for recreational or scientific purposes.
Icthyotourism: sport fishing and diving in controlled natural areas.
Hunting tourism: sport hunting in natural environments under conservation frameworks.
Hunting tourism in Mexico: legal only in UMAs (Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre) under the LGVS (Ley General de Vida Silvestre).
Astrotourism: observation of celestial bodies and astronomical phenomena.
Active tourism: activities in natural spaces, linked to rural tourism.
Adventure tourism: high-risk sports for users with high purchasing power and good physical fitness.
Religious tourism: key destinations such as Jerusalem, Rome, Mecca, Fatima, and Santiago de Compostela.
Spiritual tourism: focused on meditation, retreats, and Eastern philosophy.
Thermal or health tourism: treatments in spas for various ailments and beauty.
Business tourism: commercial purposes, high-purchasing-power clients, and inverted seasonality.
Conferences: scientific meetings for professionals in the same sector.
Seminars and conventions: training and planning for employees of the same company.
Incentive trips: leisure trips to improve work performance.
Fam trips: familiarization trips for journalists and operators to generate interest and contacts.

Government, scientific, and paranormal tourism

GITT: travel of institutional representatives on diplomatic missions or protocols
GITT: requires specialized and professionalized providers
GITT: includes transportation, accommodation, gastronomy, and cultural/social activities
GITT: lacks seasonality and has a high socioeconomic impact
GITT: characterized by improvisation
GITT: travelers act with a determined status, rank, and role
Scientific tourism: motivated by scientific interest or the need for in situ research
Scientific tourism: conducted individually or in small groups to protect the object of study
Scientific tourism: seeks to understand nature and generates economic benefits
Social scientific tourism: focused on the socialization of knowledge and the appreciation of customs
Paranormal tourism: motivated by visiting places with paranormal phenomena or myths
Paranormal tourism: seeks mystical experiences that challenge conventional science
Paranormal tourism: prevails in areas with high symbolic weight and mythopoietics
Paranormal tourism: academic debate regarding its inclusion in dark tourism

Space, nuclear, and sexual tourism

Space tourism: trips beyond 100 km in altitude
Space tourism: requires large investments and limited access
Space tourism: some authors consider it an exploratory journey due to its risks
Space tourism: first trips to the ISS lasted 3 or more days
Space tourism: current modular hotels valued at 21 million dollars
Ansari X Prize (1996): 10 million dollars for carrying 3 people to more than 100 km in less than 15 days
Nuclear tourism: conducted in test zones (Nevada, Sinkiang) or accident sites (Chernobyl)
Nuclear tourism: risks include cancer and birth defects
Nuclear tourism: declared illegal by the Ukrainian government
Sex tourism: the primary purpose is the practice of sexual relations
Sex tourism: has evolved from a marginal practice to one requiring a social redefinition

Electronic, virtual, family tourism, and tourism services

E-tourism: tourism management via the internet based on marketing and technology.
E-tourism: allows for the payment of services (accommodation, transport, food).
60% of tour package consumers search for information online (OMT).
Virtual tourism: a virtual visit (in absentia) to inaccessible places.
Virtual tourism: a subsegment of e-tourism driven by AI and technology.
Family tourism: requires specialized facilities and activities for families.
Accommodation service: lodging with or without complementary services.
Food and beverage service: provision of food/drinks on-site or off-site.
Guiding service: professional interpretation of natural and cultural heritage.
Hospitality service: organization of events (congresses, seminars, conventions).
Information service: guidance on tourism resources (generally free of charge).
Intermediation service: individuals who facilitate the contracting of services.
Tourism consultancy: performed by licensed specialists (e.g., CBRE, Jones Lang).
Tourism information: public guidance services (guides, mail, videotex).
Regulation in Argentina: advertising of attractions must include the name of the attraction, locality, and province.

Hospitality services, tourism companies, and types of accommodation

Hospitality services: offer hotel services free of charge in private locations.
Motorhome service areas: supply of drinking water and ecological disposal.
Living vehicle: legal definition for motorhomes due to their itinerant use.
Tourism companies: divided into producers (goods/services) and distributors.
Hotels: require homogeneous facilities and technical requirements; categories: 1, 2, 3, 4, 4 superior, 5 stars, and Grand Luxury.
Guesthouses: accommodation that does not meet the technical requirements of hotels.
Tourist apartments: classification from 1 to 4 keys.
Holiday cities: classification from 1 to 3 stars.
Campsites: categories luxury, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd; fixed structures limited to 25% of the spots.
Timeshare: a system of usage by shifts with exclusive use.
Rural tourism: buildings with characteristics of antiquity and rural typicality.
Vacation rentals: rental of the entire apartment, never by the room.
Resorts: healing centers (thermal, spa, thalassotherapy) with lodging.
Hotel consultancies: advice on asset appreciation and investor search.
Catering: establishments for public use for the supply of food and beverages.

Types of commercial food services, transportation, and tourism companies

Commercial food service: non-captive clientele and multiple alternatives.
Traditional: based on local customs or specific management.
Neo-catering: signature cuisine and innovative management.
Social dining: captive clientele, reduced prices, and limited offerings.
Restaurant: categories of 1 to 5 forks.
Restaurant: designated as "casas de comidas" (traditional eateries) due to special requirements.
Cafeteria: categories of 1 to 3 cups; simple and quick preparation.
Bar: maximum of 1 daily special.
Bar: designated as "tabernas" (traditional taverns) due to special requirements.
Restobar: a mix of a restaurant and a bar with live shows.
Air transport: airlines and charters.
Land transport: bus, train, and car rentals.
Maritime transport: regular lines and cruises.
Tour operators: design and operate domestic tourism products.
Travel agencies: intermediaries with a title or license.
Wholesale agencies: sell to other agencies, not to the general public.
Retail agencies: sell to consumers, not to other agencies.
Wholesale-retail agencies: sell to both companies and the general public.
Outbound agencies: send travelers to other destinations.
Inbound agencies: host tourists from abroad.
Other companies: leisure, entertainment, fun, and tourism supplies.

International Organizations for Tourism and Transport and Economic Effects of Tourism

OMT: Promotes tourism development, statistics, and consulting (UN body); Headquarters: Madrid
ICAO: UN agency (1944) for civil aviation standards and safety; Headquarters: Montreal
IATA: Private entity for aviation cooperation, ticketing, and codes; Headquarters: Montreal and Geneva
UIC: International railway cooperation; Headquarters: Paris
IRU: Sustainable road mobility (buses, taxis, trucks); Headquarters: Geneva
UFTAA: Represents travel and tourism agencies; Headquarters: Monaco
IAATO: Responsible tourism in Antarctica; Headquarters: Newport
ICCA: Meetings and events industry; Headquarters: Amsterdam
IH&RA: Hotel and restaurant interests; Headquarters: Lausanne
CLIA: Cruise community interests; Headquarters: Miami
HI: Youth hostels; Headquarters: Welwyn Garden City
ACI: Airport interests; Headquarters: Montreal
WTTC: Economic studies and tourism forecasts; Headquarters: London
IFTO: Tour operators of European markets; Headquarters: Lewes
2003 Exports: Tourism represented 6% of world exports and 30% of service exports
GDP Correlation: Tourism growth is higher when GDP exceeds 4%
Historical growth: Annual average of 4.6% between 1975 and 2000

Economic impact and cultural effects of tourism

Occupancy: 10% of the global active population
Labor characteristics: seasonality and macroeconomic dependence
Spain Data (2004): 64.7% business expenses and 43.7% value added
Spain GDP (2004): 11% of the total, with 4.9% from inbound tourism
Economic effect: multiplier and balancer of income
Inflationary pressure: price increases in receiving areas due to excess monetary supply
Balance of payments: tourism is accounted for as an export
Public investment: infrastructure improvement and urban beautification
Cultural effect: exchange of habits and risk of loss of identity
Social structure: creation of specific labor classes for the tourism service
Acculturation: an asymmetric process where the local community adapts to the tourist's culture

Impacts and effects of tourism on societies

Cultural impact: Fosters tolerance and reduces racism through the knowledge of other cultures.
International relations: Facilitates friendship agreements and understanding between States.
Education: Drives language learning and economic mobility.
Craftsmanship: Can regenerate indigenous markets but creates a risk of unfair competition from trinkets.
Role of the Government: The central State manages competitiveness, concessions, and UN funds.
Public Controls: Include taxation, security, capital flows, and health requirements (vaccines).
Sustainability: Nature is the raw material; orderly planning is required to prevent environmental degradation.
Technological Effects: Host societies adopt technology to serve the tourist.
Political Effects: International image conditions tourism flows.
Environmental Impacts: Risk of pollution, loss of biodiversity, and overexploitation of resources.
International Frameworks: Agenda 21 and the UN promote conservation for sustainable development.

Economic Impact, Risks, and Security in the Tourism Industry

Tourism as an export: generates income, employment, foreign exchange, and public revenue
Tourism security: protects ontological security and the destination's image
Security disciplines: risk perception, risk management, and disaster management
Exogenous risks: terrorism, looting, and natural disasters
Endogenous risks: theft, bad experiences, illnesses, contamination, and lost items
Disaster tourism: a tool for resilience and economic recovery post-catastrophe
Academic series: Tourism Security-Safety and Post Conflict Destinations (Emerald Publishing)
Academic approach: integrates sociology, philosophy, and mobility theory
Key themes of the series: climate change, human trafficking, dark tourism, and pandemics

Impact of COVID-19 on tourism and its relationship with poverty

Health measures: closure of borders, airports, and quarantines
Economic effects: sector downturn and substantial drop in employment
New guidelines: health passport, visa restrictions, and migration barriers
Psychological impact: increase in phobias and anxieties among travelers
Estimated recovery: almost total by mid-2023
Tourism in poverty: risk of commodifying human suffering
Tourism in poverty: a space for critical reflection on one's own institutions

Flashcard preview (6 of 40)

01
In the concept of tourism, what is the maximum time limit for a stay to be considered as such?
Less than one year.
02
If a visitor does not stay overnight, what is their activity called?
Excursion.
03
The competitiveness of a tourism product depends on the quality of the resource and factors such as accessibility, infrastructure, and [____].
Price/quality ratio.
04
According to the Semitic school (Arthur Houlot), from which language does the etymological origin of 'tourism' derive?
Ancient Aramaic.
05
In the English school, which Old Saxon term denotes the form of traveling in circles?
Torn.
06
According to Arthur Borman (1930), what temporal condition must the absence from the habitual residence meet for a trip to be considered tourism?
Temporary

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